| Abstract |
The aim of the present paper was to examine the historical evolution of the eugenics movement abroad and in Greece in early and middle 20th century. Furthermore, to identify and investigate any influence of the international eugenics movement on the Greek eugenics movement and finally, to approach the core issues of the early 20th century eugenics movement from a bioethical perspective.
The eugenics movement was based on the so-called Social Darwinism, on the new science of genetics, on biological determinism and on the various race theories. Two were the main pillars of the eugenics theory: first, the emphasis that was given on the role of heredity in shaping the personality of an individual and second, placing social interests well above the interests of individuals. The fundamental rights of an individual could be ignored for the benefit of society.
Given the above, it is inferred that eugenics is intrinsically linked to Utilitarianism, a doctrine which holds that the aim of morality is to maximize the happiness of people and that the means used to this end are morally indifferent. The theoretical opposite of eugenics and Utilitarianism is Kant’s deontology theory and approach which hold that every individual is an end-in-itself and thus can never be used as a means to the ends of others. As a result, Kant opposes any instrumentalisation of human beings and all violations of fundamental human rights. Thus, when examined through Kant’s moral perspective, the practices of the old eugenics movement are regarded as totally immoral.
The 20th century eugenics movement can be divided into two stages. The first stage lasted until the end of WWII and its main feature was that eugenics was State policy and largely authoritarian. The second stage began at the end of WWII and reaches our days. This new form of eugenics is individual, mostly neutral (State-wise) and seeks to reduce individual unhappiness. This is how eugenics was divided into modern and old eugenics.
The object of the present paper is the old eugenics movement which first appeared in England and grew in popularity in America and Northern Europe. The eugenics movement in England, despite the fact that the latter was its birthplace, had a more positive orientation. On the contrary, in the USA and then in Germany, many negative eugenics practices were applied such as castration and the prenuptial health certificate. In late 19th and early 20th century, important figures of the Greek society were introduced and embraced, to a large extent, the fundamental principles of the international eugenics movement and tried to spread those principles to the Greek society using all available means. The influence of international eugenics proponents on Greek eugenics advocates was considerable.
In general, Greek eugenics advocates had thorough knowledge of the theoretical background of eugenics and of the eugenics practices applied in the USA and in various European countries. This is largely attributed to the fact that many of them had studied abroad, mainly in Germany.
Initially, the ideas of eugenics in their modern form were introduced in Greece by the independent scholars of Nietzsche’s philosophy. Influenced by Nietzsche’s philosophy, it was Pavlos Nirvanas who first expressed eugenics ideas in studies on Nietzsche’s philosophy and was soon followed by Petros Vlastos and Nikos Kazantzakis.
During the interwar period those who promoted the ideals of racial hygiene in Greece were primarily doctors who had studied in Germany. Their main proposal was to introduce the mandatory issuance of a prenuptial health certificate and also to impose the measure of mandatory castration. Let us not forget that since the birth of the modern Greek state the scientific influence of Germany on it has always been significant. Thus, the spreading of eugenics ideas in Greece was greatly boosted by the strong bond between Greek scientists and Germany.
However, the majority of Greeks condemned, in the most express and unequivocal way, all Nazi atrocities in Germany and the corresponding eugenics laws. Thus, during the 1930’s, the German version of eugenics had only a small number of followers and was pretty marginalised in Greece.
From a moral perspective, the old eugenics movement, and the Nazi Germany eugenics movement in particular, violated all fundamental human rights by sacrificing the individual for the “supposed good of society”. This is how we were led to human indignity, deprivation of individual liberties, castrations, the Holocaust and to so many other atrocities.
In addition, the old eugenics beliefs that heredity and genes are exclusively responsible for shaping human personality and that all human beings are divided into races which can be hierarchically categorised from the most advanced to the less advanced, are scientifically unfounded.
Finally, we concluded that the eugenics movement did not fade away following its unanimous condemnation. The new liberal eugenics movement, with all its considerable and fundamental differences from old eugenics, presents an important similarity and that is the rejection of diversity. Perhaps the essence of eugenics is the violence against anything that is different. Moreover, there are signs that the danger of the reestablishment of old eugenics practices is currently more than evident. The alarming rise of far-right and racist political parties in Europe and in America, the recent racist discourses by Donald Trump, the eccentric U.S. Presidential candidate, and especially his positions on immigrants blaming them, once more, for all the problems his country is facing, bring to mind images and incidents of the early 20th century America. It was the same country where the issue of immigrants was used as the spearhead for imposing eugenics practices. We study history in an effort to avoid repeating past mistakes, as individuals and as a society. We hope than modern societies have taken valuable lessons from the bloodbath, the sorrow, the tears and the pain caused by early 20th century eugenics.
|
Το κίνημα της ανθρώπινης ευγονικής στις αρχές και τα μέσα του εικοστού αιώνα και η επιρροή του στον ελληνικό χώρο : ιστορική και βιοηθική προσέγγιση
